Nmo_760 263.283

Neurogastroenterol Motil (2006) 18, 263–283 Treatment of gastroparesis: a multidisciplinary clinicalreview The American Motility Society Task Force on Gastroparesis (members in alphabetical order) T. L. ABELL,* R. K. BERNSTEIN, T. CUTTS,à G. FARRUGIA,§ J. FORSTER,– W. L. HASLER,** R. W. MCCALLUM,– K. W. OLDEN, H. P. PARKMAN,àà C. R. PARRISH,§§ P. J. PASRICHA,–– C. M. PRATHER,*** E. E. SOFFER, R. TWILLMAN– & *University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA Diabetes Center, Mamaroneck, NY, USAàUniversity of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA§Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA–University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA**University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USAààTemple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA§§University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, USA––University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA***Saint Louis University, St Louis, MO, USA Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USAàààEastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, USA Abstract This clinical review on the treatment of Keywords gastroparesis, gastric emptying, prokinetic patients with gastroparesis is a consensus document agents, antiemetic agents, botulinum toxin.
developed by the American Motility Society TaskForce on Gastroparesis. It is a multidisciplinary effort with input from gastroenterologists and otherspecialists who are involved in the care of patients This consensus document reviews the current treat- with gastroparesis. To provide practical guidelines ment options for management of gastroparesis. The for treatment, this document covers results of paper was conceived by gastroenterologists with input published research studies in the literature and from nutrition, diabetology, surgery, pain management areas developed by consensus agreement where and psychology specialists who are involved in the care clinical research trials remain lacking in the ﬁeld of of patients with gastroparesis. To provide practical therapeutic guidelines, the authors reviewed researchstudies published in the literature from 1966 to 2005.
Abstract data presented at meetings of national and Address for correspondenceHenry P. Parkman MD, Gastroenterology Section, Parkinson international societies of gastroenterology and gastro- Pavilion, 8th Floor, Temple University School of Medicine, intestinal (GI) motility where appropriate are discussed 3401 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
to complement the published ﬁndings. Finally, in areas where clinical trials have not been performed, consen- sus opinions were formulated by the authors to Received: 29 August 2005Accepted for publication: 14 December 2005 Ó 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd exclude luminal blockage have been performed.1 It has been a common assumption that the GI symptoms canbe attributed to delays in gastric emptying; however, most investigations have observed only weak correla- Gastroparesis is a disorder characterized by symptoms tions between symptom severity and the degree of of and evidence for gastric retention in the absence of gastric stasis. In diabetics, the correlation between mechanical obstruction.1 Gastroparesis typically af- global gastric symptoms and rates of gastric emptying fects patients, mostly women, and has signiﬁcant is poor.7 When individual symptoms have been exam- impact on quality of life.2–4 The true prevalence of ined, only postprandial fullness appears to associated gastroparesis is not known; however, it has been with delayed emptying of solid food.8 In functional estimated that up to 4% of the population experiences dyspepsia, symptoms of early satiety, postprandial symptomatic manifestations of this condition. Diabetes fullness, nausea and vomiting are more prevalent in mellitus is the most common systemic disease associ- individuals with delayed gastric emptying than those ated with gastroparesis. A similar number of patients with normal emptying.9,10 However, in this condition, present with gastroparesis of an idiopathic nature.
these symptoms exhibit a relatively poor accuracy in Postsurgical gastroparesis, often with vagotomy or predicting the rate of gastric emptying. More recent damage to the vagus nerve, represents the third most studies conﬁrm an association of delayed gastric common aetiology of gastroparesis. The most fre- emptying with postprandial symptoms in functional quently reported symptoms of gastroparesis include dyspepsia; however, some symptomatic patients can nausea, vomiting, early satiety and postprandial full- exhibit accelerated rather than delayed emptying in the ness.2 Abdominal discomfort and pain also are noted by early postprandial period.11 These observations suggest many affected patients and represent challenging symp- that, while delayed gastric emptying of triturated food toms to treat.5 Weight loss, malnutrition and dehydra- may participate in the genesis of symptoms in patients tion may be prominent in severe cases. In diabetics, with gastroparesis, other factors likely to have import- gastroparesis may adversely affect glycaemic control.
ant roles as well. This conclusion factors into the Gastroparesis may also be part of a larger problem of approach to the management of gastroparesis, which motor function in generalized dysmotility syndromes should not only include therapies, which promote such as chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction. There is gastric emptying but also therapies that act through some overlap between gastroparesis and functional dyspepsia as both symptoms and gastric emptying testresults may meet deﬁnitions for both in a subset of patients.1,6 As a consequence, some patients with mildabdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and evidence of delayed emptying are considered to have functionaldyspepsia by some clinicians and gastroparesis by For rational therapy of gastroparesis, it is important to others. Patients with marked delay in gastric emptying attempt to understand the pathogenesis of the disorder.
should be diagnosed with gastroparesis not functional Delays in gastric emptying may result from a variety of dyspepsia. In general, predominant abdominal pain with deﬁcits of neuromuscular function. Distinct regional lesser degrees of nausea is more consistent with a motor abnormalities of the stomach may have select- diagnosis of functional dyspepsia, whereas predominant ive effects on global emptying and symptoms. Further- nausea and vomiting with lesser degrees of abdominal more, symptomatic manifestations of gastroparesis pain is more characteristic of gastroparesis.
require the involvement of the peripheral and thecentral nervous systems. Indeed, the act of emesis withgastroparesis mandates participation of a number of linked brainstem nuclei. Effective management of A variety of methods have been advocated for the gastroparesis relies on the design of therapies that act measurement of gastric emptying of nutritive and inert meals. The best accepted technique is scintigraphy The different symptoms of gastroparesis may have involving ingestion of an egg meal cooked with a their basis from regional abnormalities within the technetium radiolabel. The diagnosis of gastroparesis is stomach. Manometric studies have characterized made when a delay in gastric emptying is present and increases in tonic and phasic motor activity of the laboratory studies to rule out metabolic causes of pylorus in subsets of gastroparesis patients.12 This, symptoms and endoscopic and radiographic testing to along with antral hypomotility, may be the cause of Journal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd delays in gastric emptying in individuals with gastrop- symptoms and (iii) identify and rectify the underlying aresis.13 Alterations in compliance and accommodation cause of gastroparesis, if possible.1 Care of patients of the proximal stomach may explain symptoms such generally relies on dietary modiﬁcation, medications as early satiety and postprandial fullness and discom- that stimulate gastric motor activity and antiemetic fort.14–16 Heightened perception of gastric distention drug therapy. Although in most cases, rigorous inves- has been described in diabetic patients with upper GI tigations have not assessed therapeutic responses as a symptoms suggesting a possible contribution from function of symptom severity, a number of basic visceral afferent hypersensitivity to symptoms such as recommendations can be made. For mild symptoms nausea and pain. Further, many patients have associ- (grade 1), dietary modiﬁcations should be tried. When ated dysmotility of the small bowel whose contribution possible, patients should avoid the use of medications to the clinical syndrome has not been well-deﬁned.13 that delay gastric emptying. If needed, low doses of Potentially, each of these regional abnormalities repre- antiemetic or prokinetic medications can be taken on sents a distinct and useful therapeutic target.
an as needed basis. Diabetic patients should strive foroptimal glycaemic control to minimize effects ofhyperglycaemia on gastric function. For individuals with compensated gastroparesis (grade 2), treatment Many therapies of gastroparesis relieve symptoms only recommendations commonly involve a combination of in subsets of gastroparesis patients or are associated antiemetic and prokinetic medications given at regu- with signiﬁcant side-effects. Recent investigations larly scheduled intervals to relieve more chronic have focused on the quantiﬁcation of disease severity symptoms of nausea, vomiting, fullness and bloating.
both for research purposes and to assist in the delin- These agents frequently have no effect on the pain and eation of which patients are likely to beneﬁt from the discomfort that may be associated with gastroparesis.
different modes of treating gastroparesis. A symptom In these patients, measures which are directed to pain questionnaire, the Gastroparesis Cardinal Symptom control but which do not exacerbate the other mani- Index (GCSI), has been developed and validated in festations of gastroparesis must be designed. For university-based clinical practices for quantifying patients with severe gastroparesis (grade 3), more symptoms in gastroparesis.17 The GCSI is based on aggressive treatments including hospitalization for three subscales (postprandial fullness/early satiety, i.v. hydration, insulin administration and i.v. admin- nausea/vomiting and bloating) and represents a subset istration of antiemetic and prokinetic agents are con- of the longer Patient Assessment of Upper Gastroin- sidered. Chronic care of these individuals may include testinal Disorders-Symptoms (PAGI-SYM). In addition, enteral or parenteral nutritional support with endo- a simple clinical severity grading scale was proposed in scopic and/or surgical intervention.
2003 but has yet to validated (Table 1). Future inves-tigations will determine if the use of such scoring systems for patient stratiﬁcation will improve care.
The general principles for treating symptomatic gastroparesis are to: (i) correct and prevent ﬂuid, There have been no published controlled trials exam- electrolyte and nutritional deﬁciencies; (ii) reduce ining the effects of dietary interventions on clinicaloutcomes in patients with gastroparesis. Nevertheless, Table 1 Proposed classiﬁcation of gastroparesis severity a number of dietary recommendations can be madebased on our understanding of the physiology of gastric emptying of foods of different physical properties and Able to maintain weight and nutrition on a regular diet different nutrient classes.18 Such dietary recommenda- tions are likely to be of greatest beneﬁt to those with mild disease (grade 1), but should also be offered to Moderate symptoms with partial control with patients with more severe gastroparesis (grades 2 and 3) Able to maintain nutrition with dietary and lifestyle to complement pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceuti- A careful patient history can identify intolerances to Grade 3: Gastroparesis with gastric failure speciﬁc foods, such as dairy products or red meats, Refractory symptoms despite medical therapy which can be addressed during design of a diet Inability to maintain nutrition via oral routeFrequent emergency room visits or hospitalizations programme for the patient with gastroparesis. Thephysical examination should include attention to Ó 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd dentition. Impaired mastication resulting in consump- in 36 clinical trials reported that the macrolide antibi- tion of poorly chewed food could compound the defect otic erythromycin is the most potent stimulant of in antral trituration. Reducing meal size and increasing gastric emptying, while erythromycin and the dopam- the number of meals to 4–6 per day are reasonable ine receptor antagonist domperidone are best at redu- initial recommendations to minimize postprandial cing symptoms of gastroparesis.20 However, as for all gastric distention. Patients are instructed to chew food meta-analyses, concerns can be raised regarding publi- well, to avoid foods that cannot be chewed easily, to cation bias in which negative studies are not reported take ﬂuids throughout the course of the meal and to sit and marked differences in study design that can inval- or walk for 1–2 h after meals. A diet low in indigest- idate comparisons of the different drugs. Thus, several ible, insoluble ﬁbre is advocated as ﬁbre delays gastric factors must be considered when choosing a prokinetic emptying and can contribute to bezoar formation in drug for the patient with gastroparesis including efﬁc- those with profound gastric stasis.19 Likewise, ﬁbre acy, toxicity, regional availability and cost.
supplements for treatment of constipation should bediscontinued if possible. Fatty foods should be restric- ted as lipids delay emptying. However, fat-containingliquids may be tolerated and provide needed calories. A Dopamine is an inhibitor of motor activity of the daily multivitamin/mineral supplement can be taken stomach. Two agents, which act as dopamine receptor antagonists, metoclopramide and domperidone, are If these measures are ineffective, the patient may be commonly used in patients with gastroparesis. Both advised to consume the bulk of their calories as liquid agents act to counteract the inhibitory effects of because gastric emptying of liquids often is preserved endogenous dopamine on gastric emptying. They fur- in gastroparesis. To meet the nutritional needs of the ther act as antiemetic agents by virtue of their patient, it may be necessary to supplement the diet blockade of dopamine receptor-mediated pathways in with a commercially available liquid nutrient prepar- the brainstem. Metoclopramide also acts as a serotonin ation that is low in fat and ﬁbre. Homogenized solid 5-HT4-receptor agonist to stimulate cholinergic neural meal supplements such as blenderized foods may be pathways in the stomach and a weak 5-HT3-receptor used as a liquid nutrient source. Poor tolerance of a liquid diet is predictive of a future poor success with Metoclopramide has been approved for short-term use (4–12 weeks) since 1979. Several studies haveevaluated the efﬁcacy of metoclopramide for thetreatment of gastroparesis. In one 3 week double-blind trial, metoclopramide produced greater symptom Prokinetic medications enhance contractility of the GI improvement and acceleration of gastric emptying tract and promote the movement of luminal contents in than placebo.21 Similar results were observed in other an antegrade direction (Table 2). There has been little in placebo-controlled crossover studies; however, individ- the way of controlled investigations directly comparing ual improvements in gastric emptying correlated the different prokinetic medications. A meta-analysis poorly with reductions in nausea and vomiting empha- assessing beneﬁts of four different drugs in 514 patients sizing that symptom beneﬁts may not result from the Table 2 Prokinetic medication classes for treatment of gastroparesis *Via FDA IND and IRB approval.
Under strict compassionate use protocol approved by pharmaceutical company and IRB.
FDA, Food and Drug Administration; IND, investigational new drug; IRB, Institutional Review Board; CCK, cholecystokinin.
Journal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd prokinetic actions of the drug and that antiemetic to double-blind continuation of domperidone vs with- mechanisms may be important for clinical efﬁc- drawal on placebo. Those maintained on domperidone acy.22,23 One additional possible mechanism of action reported signiﬁcantly greater persistence of symptom of metoclopramide is to normalize gastric slow wave beneﬁt compared with those withdrawn from active drug regardless of the results of gastric emptying Metoclopramide is generally begun at a oral dose of testing. In a small study of six patients with diabetic 5–10 mg 30 min before meals and at bedtime, which gastroparesis, symptom improvement on domperidone can be increased to 20 mg four times daily if necessary was associated with resolution of gastric slow wave and if there are no side-effects. For patients who may dysrhythmias suggestive of a possible gastric antidys- not efﬁciently empty pills from the stomach for absorption, metoclopramide is available in a liquid Domperidone is generally started at 10 mg four times formulation. An orally disintegrating preparation may a day. If symptoms persist, the dose is increased to 20– soon be available. For individuals with more refractory 30 mg four times daily. A trial of 80–120 mg day)1 for nausea and vomiting and unable to retain oral medi- up to 1 month is considered the time needed to assess cations, subcutaneous injections of metoclopramide its efﬁcacy. Because it does not cross the blood–brain have shown symptomatic efﬁcacy in patients.25 Final- barrier, domperidone has a more favourable side-effect ly, i.v. metoclopramide is often used in inpatient care proﬁle compared with metoclopramide. Dystonias and other movement disorders are exceedingly uncommon Most of the severe side-effects of metoclopramide with this agent. Domperidone is often used in patients result from its ability to easily cross the blood–brain whom have had side-effects to metoclopramide. Dom- barrier. Up to 30% of patients cannot tolerate meto- peridone is especially useful in gastroparetic patients clopramide due either to drowsiness and fatigue or to with Parkinson’s disease in whom it can improve restlessness and irritability. Acute dystonic reactions gastric emptying without blocking the central dopam- develop in approximately 1% of patients, often within inergic actions of treatment for Parkinson’s disease.31 24–48 h of initiating treatment. Prolonged treatment The anterior pituitary lies outside of the blood–brain infrequently may produce Parkinsonian-like symp- barrier; hyperprolactinaemic effects represent the major toms. Tardive dyskinesia, characterized by involuntary adverse effects of domperidone therapy. An i.v. form of movement of the face, tongue, or extremities, is an domperidone was withdrawn in the 1980s due to rare infrequent adverse effect of prolonged use of meto- reports of fatal cardiac dysrhythmias.
clopramide that may not reverse upon discontinuing In the United States, domperidone is not approved by the medication. The prevalence of tardive dyskinesia the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and cannot be ranges from 1% to 10% when taking metoclopramide obtained by routine prescription or covered by health- for at least 3 months.26,27 Doctors should discuss the care plans. Traditionally, domperidone has been obtain- risk of tardive dyskinesia with their patients and able from other countries, from Internet websites, or document this discussion in their medical record. Some from compounding pharmacies within the USA. These clinicians have patients sign an informed consent to practices have been discouraged by the FDA. Domperi- document communicating the risks of metoclopra- done can be obtained through a FDA investigational mide. Other common side-effects of metoclopramide new drug application (IND) with local Institutional relate to its actions to stimulate prolactin secretion Review Board (IRB) approval. Using this mechanism, from the pituitary and include breast tenderness, patients sign an informed consent document and pur- galactorrhoea and menstrual irregularities.
chase domperidone from an FDA-approved pharmacy.
Domperidone, a peripheral dopamine receptor ant- Other dopamine receptor antagonists are in develop- agonist, has been studied most extensively in diabetic ment. Itopride, an agent with dopamine antagonist and gastroparesis. The drug stimulates both liquid- and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory properties, accelerates solid-phase gastric emptying; however, the symptom gastric emptying in patients with diabetic gastroparesis beneﬁts of domperidone do not clearly relate to its and is used in Asia as a therapy for functional motor stimulatory actions but may instead stem from dyspepsia.32,33 In North America, itopride is currently its antiemetic properties.28 In a trial of diabetics with symptoms suggestive of gastroparesis, 260 patientsinitially received domperidone at 20 mg four times a day for 4 weeks.29 Eighty percentage of these individ-uals responded to therapy, deﬁned as more than 30% Motilin, an endogenous peptide hormone released by reduction in symptoms. Responders were randomized the duodenal mucosa, elicits antroduodenal contrac- Ó 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd tions via activation of smooth muscle L-type calcium- channels after occupation of motilin receptors on enteric neurones and smooth muscle tissue.34 A num- Cisapride is the best characterized 5-HT4-receptor ber of macrolide antibiotics act as motilin receptor agonist with prokinetic properties in the GI tract.
agonists to promote upper gut transit, including eryth- Cisapride activation of 5-HT4-receptors facilitates romycin, clarithromycin and azithromycin.35,36 When release of acetylcholine from myenteric cholinergic given i.v., erythromycin is the most potent stimulant nerves throughout the gut. The functional conse- of gastric emptying among the available prokinetic quences of this action are to stimulate antral contrac- drugs.37 The regional actions of erythromycin include stimulation of cholinergic nerves in the antrum which accelerate gastric emptying.49,50 Cisapride initially elicit co-ordinated phasic contractions and activation was approved by the FDA for treatment of nocturnal of inhibitory nerves in the pylorus which promote heartburn in patients with gastro-oesophageal reﬂux disease. Studies demonstrated symptom beneﬁts in A number of controlled and open trials have reported patients with gastroparesis which lasted for at least clinical beneﬁts of erythromycin therapy in patients 1 year.51 As a result, cisapride became a drug of choice with gastroparesis. Symptom improvement has been for management of gastroparesis. In prolonged post- noted in 43% of patients treated with oral erythro- marketing surveillance, a number of cases of sudden mycin.41 However, the utility of chronic oral erythro- death from cardiac dysrhythmias were attributed to mycin therapy may be limited by development of cisapride use.52 Subsequent investigations implicated a tachyphylaxis as a consequence of motilin receptor direct action of cisapride on cardiac potassium-chan- downregulation which can develop within days of nels, which promoted QT interval prolongation and initiating treatment.42 When given chronically, eryth- predisposed patients to development of ventricular romycin is usually started in low doses (125 mg two to dysrhythmias including Torsades de pointes. Patients four times daily) in liquid form to facilitate its with underlying cardiac disease, especially of the absorption. Dosing can be titrated as needed for conduction system, and those on medications known clinical effect. Side-effects of erythromycin therapy to prolong the QT interval are the main groups at risk.
are common and include nausea, vomiting and abdom- Because of this adverse effect, cisapride was withdrawn inal pain that may occur more prominently at higher from the USA market in 2000. Currently, the drug is doses. Recently, a review of a large Medicaid cohort available in the United States through a compassionate observed approximately a twofold increased risk of use/limited-access programme through Janssen Phar- sudden cardiac death in individuals on erythromycin maceutica (Titusville, NJ, USA) with strict patient therapy.43 This risk was further increased by concom- monitoring.52 Cisapride also can be obtained from itant use of cytochrome P-450 (CYP-3A) inhibitors Internet websites and in various geographic sites such as verapamil or diltiazam. Azithromycin does worldwide. However, its use is discouraged by the not have the cardiac risk and has been proposed as an alternative, although long-term data are not Tegaserod, a 5-HT4-receptor agonist, is approved for treatment of constipation-predominant irritable bowel A recent focus of pharmaceutical investigation has syndrome and chronic constipation. Although its been the development of motilin receptor agonists prokinetic actions appear to be greatest in the small exhibiting prokinetic capabilities but without antimi- intestine and proximal colon, tegaserod given at a crobial properties. An early motilin agonist, ABT-229, dose of 6 mg twice daily accelerates gastric emptying actually worsened symptoms in diabetics with nausea in healthy volunteers.53,54 In an abstract publication and vomiting compared with placebo and showed no of 163 patients with gastroparesis, tegaserod was beneﬁts in functional dyspepsia.44,45 A newer agent, shown to accelerate solid-phase gastric emptying mitemcinal, exhibits potent prokinetic action in which was most pronounced at doses higher than the stomach and early results in diabetic gastroparesis those commonly used to treat constipation (6 mg show good effects.46 Ghrelin, a neurohumoral trans- three times daily and 12 mg twice daily).55 The mitter secreted by the stomach, is believed to play effect of tegaserod on symptoms was not reported.
a physiological role as a stimulant of food intake.
Because of this prokinetic effect, tegaserod has been Recent preliminary investigations show a prokinetic used on an off-label basis for the treatment of gastroparesis. Studies are ongoing to determine if the emptying in patients with diabetic and idiopathic prokinetic actions of tegaserod produce clinically meaningful symptom improvements in diabetics with Journal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd gastroparesis. Tegaserod has no effects on the cardiac such as nizatidine, exhibit anticholinesterase activity and stimulate gastric emptying but their efﬁcacy in Other 5-HT4-receptor agonists have been developed long-term treatment of gastroparesis is unknown.64,65 and show efﬁcacy in gastroparesis. Mosapride acceler- The a-adrenoceptor receptor agonist clonidine was ates gastric emptying in healthy volunteers and reported to accelerate gastric emptying in a small patients with diabetic gastroparesis.57,58 Furthermore, study of patients with diabetic gastroparesis, but the drug may improve glycaemic control in diabetics delayed gastric emptying in another trial.66,67 Chole- with delayed gastric emptying.58 In contrast to cisa- cystokinin receptor antagonists accelerate gastric pride, mosapride has little effect on potassium-channel emptying in some studies. The utility of such agents activity and appears to exhibit a signiﬁcantly lesser in gastroparesis remains to be determined.
cardiac dysrhythmogenic potential.59 Renzapride is acombined 5-HT4-receptor agonist and 5-HT3-receptor antagonist. Future studies are needed to determine ifrenzapride exhibits efﬁcacy in gastroparesis.
As stated above, it is likely that a component of theclinical beneﬁts observed with some of the availableprokinetic drugs, such as metoclopramide and dom- peridone, stem from antiemetic actions on brainstem Other agents have been proposed as motor stimulatory nuclei (Table 3). Use of antiemetic medications with- treatments in gastroparesis. The cholinergic muscarinic out prokinetic potential to reduce nausea and vomiting receptor agonist bethanechol increases phasic antral associated with gastroparesis is common clinical prac- motor activity; however, the elicited contractions are tice. However, there is very limited literature on the not peristaltic and do not facilitate gastric empty- use of antiemetic agents in gastroparesis. Indeed, a ing.60–62 Bethanechol also produces signiﬁcant side- careful Medline search revealed only a single case effects including ﬂushing, diaphoresis, nausea and study reporting on the use of the non-prokinetic abdominal discomfort. As a consequence, bethanechol dopamine receptor antagonist thiethylperazine in is rarely used alone for treating gastroparesis. Some gastroparesis.68 Most of the standard antiemetic agents clinicians employ the medication in low doses in have no effect on gastric motor function; some may combination with other prokinetic agents; however, delay stomach emptying. It is the consensus opinion of this practice has not been subjected to a clinical trial.
the authors that use of antiemetic medications may be Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, such as physostig- beneﬁcial in cases in which prokinetic drug therapy is mine and neostigmine, stimulate gut motor activity ineffective or produces unacceptable toxicity. Indeed, it by increasing acetylcholine levels with subsequent is possible that some cases of gastroparesis may show muscarinic receptor activation. As with bethanechol, anticholinesterase agents do not improve antroduo- patients of gastroparesis (grade 3), both prokinetics denal co-ordination and have inconsistent effects on and antiemetics are often used in combination to gastric emptying.63 Some H2-receptor antagonists, address control of symptoms. Although pharmacoge- Desipramine, nortriptyline, amitriptyline The H1, D2 and M1 receptor antagonists have overlap. The classiﬁcation reﬂects thepredominant activity.
Ó 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd nomics related to phase I reactions are relevant to the prophylaxis and treatment of chemotherapy-evoked combination of prokinetics and antiemetics, there is nausea and vomiting.81,82 The utility of these agents no evidence to suggests that adding an antiemetic in reducing symptoms in patients with gastroparesis agent adversely affects the clinical course of patients.
must be subjected to controlled investigation.
Antiemetic medications reduce vomiting by action One group of medications with antiemetic proper- on a diverse range of receptor subtypes in the peripheral ties, the tricyclic antidepressant agents, may warrant and central nervous systems (Table 3). When consider- special attention as a potential therapy for certain ing antiemetic drug use in gastroparesis, the clinician patients with gastroparesis. Low-dose tricyclic drugs should take into account factors such as side-effects, are commonly prescribed by gastroenterologists for interactions with other medications, development of refractory functional bowel diseases such as irritable tolerance and cost. The most commonly prescribed bowel syndrome. In a recent retrospective evaluation, traditional antiemetic drugs are the phenothiazines, tricyclic drugs given for a mean of 5 months produced which act as both dopamine and cholinergic receptor moderate to complete symptom reductions in the antagonists. These agents include prochlorperazine and majority of patients with functional vomiting.83 In a thiethylperazine, which are believed to act primarily in preliminary abstract on the retrospective analysis of the area postrema. Cholinergic muscarinic M1-receptor 24 diabetics with nausea and vomiting unresponsive to antagonists are commonly employed for disorders prokinetic drugs, 88% experienced symptom reduc- involving vestibular pathways, including motion sick- tions on tricyclic medications at a median dose of ness. Transdermal scopolamine is occasionally used to 50 mg day)1 and one-third of patients reported symp- treat nausea and vomiting in gastroparesis,69 although tom remission.84 Nearly one-third of patients had a there is no published data to support this practice.
pre-existing delay in gastric emptying, suggesting that Muscarinic antagonists such as hyoscyamine and tricyclics may be effective in some cases of gastropa- clidinium delay gastric emptying.70,71 Histamine resis even though this drug class traditionally has been H1-receptor antagonists exhibit the greatest beneﬁt in considered to delay gastric emptying. Future prospect- conditions that activate vestibular pathways, such as ive controlled trials will deﬁne the role of this group of motion sickness and labyrinthitis, and some cases of medications in the management of gastroparesis.
postoperative emesis.72,73 Pure H1 antagonists include Complementary and alternative medicine therapies dimenhydrinate and meclizine, whereas promethazine often are given for treatment of nausea and vomiting.
has mixed actions on other receptor subtypes. Many of Ginger, a traditional Chinese antiemetic agent, exhib- these agents have a mild inhibitory effect on gastric its weak 5-HT3-receptor antagonist properties and has emptying.74 The serotonin 5-HT3-receptor antagonists gastric slow wave antidysrhythmic effects in hu- have efﬁcacy in chemotherapy-induced emesis, post- mans.85,86 Acupressure and electrical acustimulation operative emesis and radiation therapy-induced vomit- on the P6 acupuncture point (the Relief Band) have ing. An abstract reported that ondansetron produced shown variable success for postoperative emesis, small but statistically signiﬁcant reductions in nausea, chemotherapy-induced vomiting and nausea of preg- vomiting and abdominal pain in 17 patients with nancy.87 One study has reported beneﬁts of acupunc- refractory unexplained nausea and vomiting.75 On- dansetron has no effect on gastric emptying in healthyvolunteers although one investigation observed inhibition of gas-tric activity with tropesitron.78 Cannabinoids exhibit In some patients with gastroparesis, pain represents a potency equal to or slightly greater than dopamine prominent symptom and can produce signiﬁcant mor- receptor antagonist antiemetic drugs in chemotherapy- bidity and utilization of healthcare resources.2,5 The induced emesis, and may have additional appetite pathogenesis of pain in gastroparesis is poorly under- stimulatory effects.79 Benzodiazepines are useful in stood and treatments for this symptom largely are the management of anticipatory nausea and vomiting unsatisfactory. In diabetics with gastroparesis, pain has prior to chemotherapy administration, in large part been considered to be a consequence of autonomic because of their anxiolytic and tranquilizing effects.
neuropathy. However, one small study found that Benzodiazepines do not affect gastric emptying and more severe forms of visceral afferent neuropathy were may be useful in i.v. form for inpatients with gastro- associated with fewer rather than more symptoms.89 paresis by virtue of their sedating actions.80 The most To date, there have been no studies to speciﬁcally recently introduced antiemetics are the neurokinin address the effectiveness of any therapy of abdominal NK1-receptor antagonists, which are available for pain in patients with gastroparesis.
Journal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd The approach to dealing with pain in these patients produce fewer side-effects.100 Longer acting compounds begins with an empathetic understanding by the doctor such as methadone or continuous release preparations with recognition that pain is a valid component of the such as transdermal fentanyl may elicit less constipa- gastroparesis symptom complex. The role of pharmac- tion than other narcotics.101,102 A current area of drug otherapy in the management of pain with gastroparesis development is the generation of peripheral opioid is complicated by potential drug toxicities and drug receptor antagonists which block peripheral effects of properties, which can delay emptying and/or worsen narcotic drugs but preserve the central analgesic symptoms thereby counteracting the beneﬁts of pro- effects.103,104 However, a study of the novel peripheral kinetic and antiemetic medications. Several medica- l-opiate receptor antagonist alvimopan observed rever- tion classes offer theoretical beneﬁts for reducing pain sal of the inhibitory effects of codeine on the small in the gastroparesis patient. Non-steroidal anti-inﬂam- intestine and colon but not the stomach.105 matory agents ameliorate gastric slow wave dysrhyth-mias in several healthy human models.90 Furthermore, oral indomethacin and i.v. ketorolac have been repor-ted to resolve slow wave abnormalities in diabetics and Unrelenting nausea and vomiting, often with associ- patients with dyspeptic symptoms.91,92 However, non- ated pain, frequently combine to produce signiﬁcant steroidal agents are potentially ulcerogenic and may psychological consequences. Virtually all studies worsen renal function in some diabetics. Thus, their examining psychological aspects of gastroparesis and routine use cannot be advocated by the authors of this functional dyspepsia show impaired quality of life and consensus document although selected patients can be increased levels of anxiety, depression and somatiza- considered for these drugs. In addition to their poten- tion.2,106,107 Furthermore, one study has reported that tial utility as antiemetics, tricyclic medications in low measures of psychological dysfunction correlated bet- doses may reduce pain associated with gastroparesis ter with gastropathic symptoms in diabetics than do much as they do in other forms of neuropathic pain.93 measures of neuropathy and gastric emptying.108 Other antidepressant classes including selective sero- Patients with gastroparesis need an empathetic doc- tonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), selective noradren- tor who recognizes the emotional disruptions caused by aline reuptake inhibitors and combined serotonin/ their GI illness. Instilling hope, addressing pain and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (such as the novel increasing self-management of their chronic illness are agent, duloxetine, which was recently approved for important. Conceptualizing the psychophysiological diabetic neuropathy) may have beneﬁts as well; how- aspects of the disease helps the patient focus on what ever, there are no data on their actions on visceral he/she can control and decreases viewing the disease as nerve function.94 Among SSRIs, paroxetine may selec- ÔpsychiatricÕ in nature.109 Management of severe gastro- tively accelerate small intestinal transit.95,96 Other paresis may be enhanced by the active participation of a agents with efﬁcacy in peripheral neuropathic pain team of providers who communicate together and such as gabapentin and topiramate have unknown collaborate effectively.110 The clinical psychologist actions in patients with pain associated with gastrop- can be an important member of the Ôgastroparesis teamÕ aresis.97,98 The a-adrenoceptor receptor agonist cloni- to help the patient develop a game plan for coping with dine exhibits visceral antinociceptive effects, but its symptoms. Efforts to facilitate psychosocial support effects on pain with gastroparesis are uncertain.99 and rehabilitation, including encouraging education Unfortunately many patients with severe pain do not and the support of family and friends, are import- respond to more conservative therapies and are given ant.109,111 Psychotherapeutic interventions can be help- intermittent or chronic therapy with opiate agents for ful as adjunctive measures. Simple measures such as pain control. Although narcotic agents produce gener- relaxation techniques, cognitive restructuring and dis- alized analgesia, their efﬁcacy in gastroparesis is traction help promote a sense of control on the part of unproved. Furthermore, opiates exert potent inhibitory the patient. Other techniques such as hypnosis and effects on GI transit inhibiting gastric emptying and biofeedback may beneﬁt some patients.112 colonic transit.100 Finally, chronic narcotic use mayresult in tolerance to its analgesic effects, physical dependence and addiction. Thus, the routine use of opiate agents for the management of pain with gastro-paresis is not advocated by the authors. If narcotics are In tertiary care centres, up to 50% of patients with to be considered, milder agents such as tramadol, an long-standing (>5 years) type 1 (insulin-dependent) or opioid with less impact on l-opiate receptors, may type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes may have Ó 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd delayed gastric emptying.113 The prevalence of GI glycaemia on gastric function to its impact on symp- symptoms in diabetics in the primary care setting toms is less clear. However, one study has observed a appears to be lower. A population-based survey repor- signiﬁcant correlation between the degree of hypergly- ted that 18% of diabetics experience frequent dysmo- caemia and the severity of postprandial fullness in tility type, upper GI symptoms, a rate greater than in diabetic patients.124 All studies to date have examined non-diabetics.114 Moreover, this survey observed a the functional consequences of acute elevations in trend to an increase in frequency of symptoms in those blood glucose. The impact of chronic, long-term with poor glycaemic control. Conversely in a US hyperglycaemia on gastric dysfunction in persons with epidemiological study, the prevalence of most GI diabetes is less clear; there are no long-term controlled symptoms was similar in persons with or without studies conﬁrming the importance of good glycaemic diabetes.115 The presence of impaired motor function control in reducing symptoms in diabetic gastroparesis.
of the stomach in patients with diabetes does not However, observations from physiological studies sug- always lead to development of gastric symptoms. In gest that high blood glucose levels can adversely affect one investigation, only 50% of diabetic patients with responses to therapy. In both type 1 diabetic patients delayed gastric emptying reported typical symptoms of and healthy volunteers, induction of acute hypergly- gastroparesis.116 Additionally, diabetics with normal caemia markedly attenuates the motor stimulatory gastric emptying may have a symptom constellation effects of the prokinetic drug erythromycin on the indistinguishable from those with delayed gastric emptying.117 It is a common clinical observation thatdiabetic patients with gastroparesis may also exhibit Glycaemic control in diabetic gastroparesis erratic postprandial blood sugar values. Indeed, loss ofgood glycaemic control in a previously well-regulated Because of the consistent observations from physiolo- diabetic should raise concern for gastroparesis. Gastric gical studies that high serum glucose levels adversely stasis impairs delivery of nutrients and oral hypoglyc- affect gastric function, it is the consensus opinion of aemic medications to the small intestine for absorp- the authors that intensiﬁcation of therapies to correct tion. Postprandial hypoglycaemia or hyperglycaemia hyperglycaemia may facilitate the actions of and may develop depending on how the delivery of nutri- increase the beneﬁts of other treatments in managing ents corresponds with the peak absorption of the the patient with diabetic gastroparesis. Measures that are likely to be effective include more aggressiveglucose monitoring with frequent dosing of short-acting insulin preparations to prevent profound post- prandial hyperglycaemia. Prevention of wide ﬂuctua- A number of studies have demonstrated a relationship tions in serum glucose levels may be more important between blood glucose levels and parameters of gastric than maintenance of a given steady-state blood sugar function both in diabetic patients and in healthy value from a gastric emptying perspective.127 To this volunteers.118,119 In patients with type 1 diabetes, end, monitoring 2-h postprandial blood glucose levels acute hyperglycaemia to blood glucose levels of 288– may be useful. Conversely, there is little convincing 360 mg dL)1 elicits delays in both liquid and solid evidence to suggests that prokinetic treatment of gastric emptying.118 Other investigations in diabetics delayed gastric emptying can reliably improve glycae- have demonstrated hyperglycaemia-evoked impair- ment of postprandial phasic antral contractions and Glucose control in the type 2 diabetic patient with induction of tachygastria, providing possible mecha- gastroparesis can represent a signiﬁcant challenge. In nisms for the retarding effects on gastric emptying of many type 2 diabetics, oral hypoglycaemic medica- high glucose levels.120 Conversely in some type 2 tions often are ineffective and can contribute to swings diabetics, liquid-phase gastric emptying may be accel- in blood glucose levels because of the temporal erated during hyperglycaemia.121 Investigations in mismatch between nutrient absorption and medica- healthy volunteers observe that acute increases in tion. The addition of basal insulin therapy to oral blood glucose can abolish phasic antral motor activity, therapy may be valuable in achieving glycaemic stimulate pyloric contractions, evoke tachygastria and control in the type 2 diabetic patient. Furthermore, enhance fundic compliance, indicating that the degree use of a long-acting insulin preparation with a 24 h of glycaemic control itself can inﬂuence gastric func- proﬁle that mimics normal pancreatic basal secretion tion independently of the presence of underlying may improve overall regulation of blood glucose levels.
neuropathy.122,123 The relation of the actions of hyper- Newer insulin analogues such as insulin glargine limit Journal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd the number and severity of isolated insulin peaks and are associated with fewer hypoglycaemic episodes.
Addition of basal insulin glargine or neutral protamine Determining the degree of nutritional compromise Hagedorn (NPH) to target a mean fasting plasma involves assessment of symptoms, diet history, body- glucose concentration of £100 mg dL)1 facilitates weight (bw) and disease course. The conventional attainment of glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) val- nutritional laboratory assessments of serum albumin ues of <7% in patients who were inadequately and prealbumin levels are affected by a variety of controlled with oral hypoglycaemic agents.129 Patients factors in gastroparesis and may not be reliable meas- on insulin glargine are more likely to reach this goal ures of nutritional status. Unintentional weight loss without nocturnal hypoglycaemia compared with over time is probably the most important, non-invasive parameter for assessing the degree of malnutrition. A Patients with type 1 diabetes are especially prone to 10% loss of weight over 6 months is consistent with wide variations in blood glucose levels. The use of a current deﬁnitions of signiﬁcant malnutrition.130 One premixed formulation with both short- and long- should compare the patient’s current actual weight to acting insulin requires relatively strict adherence to his or her usual bw as opposed to the ideal bw, which meal timing and composition, and assumes that can result in overestimation or underestimation of true nutrients will be available within a given time frame weight loss. The subset of diabetic patients with to avoid hypoglycaemia. Because of these restrictions, chronic renal failure requiring haemodialysis requires premixed insulin may be a poor choice for individuals careful scrutiny as progressive falls in weight may with delayed or unpredictable gastric emptying. For reﬂect either development of gastroparesis or excessive many type 1 diabetic patients, a long-acting prepar- ﬂuid withdrawal during dialysis. Essential nutrient and ation such as insulin glargine may be administered mineral deﬁciencies, particularly those resulting in twice daily with preprandial injections of regular anaemia and metabolic bone disease, require ongoing insulin formulas. However, in those with gastropa- monitoring and supplementation if needed. Laboratory resis, postprandial hypoglycaemic episodes can occur studies should include: (i) electrolytes including mag- when the glucose-lowering effects of preprandial nesium, as hypokalaemia and hypomagnesaemia can short-acting insulin precede delivery of nutrients into exacerbate delay in gastric emptying; (ii) serum glucose the small intestine for digestion and absorption. As a and HbA1c in diabetic patients; (iii) iron and ferritin consequence, some persons with delayed emptying levels particularly for partial gastrectomy settings; (iv) may need regular insulin dosing during or even after vitamin B12 and (v) 25-OH vitamin D especially in meal ingestion. Postprandial administration also al- those with long-standing gastroparesis or gastroparesis lows the patient to reduce the insulin dose if vomiting occurring after partial gastrectomy.
prevented consumption of the entire meal. Somepatients beneﬁt from use of improved insulin pumps which can be set to provide a constant basal insulininfusion 24 h a day. These individuals then adminis- Initiation of enteral feedings is indicated if oral nutri- ter bolus regular insulin injections prior to, during, or tion fails to meet the caloric and ﬂuid needs of the after meals. In selected cases, jejunostomy feedings patient with gastroparesis. Enteral nutrition is prefer- may minimize extreme glycaemic ﬂuctuations. Addi- able to total parenteral nutrition (TPN) in most tional insulin may be needed for those receiving individuals, because of issues related to infectious complications, thrombosis, i.v. access problems, hepa- additional calories and to prevent overnight hyper- tobiliary consequences, administration and cost. Fur- thermore, TPN rarely is necessary in the patient withgastroparesis unless there is profound dysmotility alsoinvolving the small intestine as in chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction. However, some severely malnour- ished gastroparetic patients may beneﬁt from a brief Patients with chronic symptoms of gastroparesis may course of TPN to provide supplemental caloric support develop dehydration, electrolyte abnormalities and/or and to gain glycaemic control. For these individuals, extreme malnutrition. Such individuals warrant care- 30–40 units of regular insulin may need to be added to ful nutritional assessment and consideration to initiate each litre of TPN, depending on the patient’s prior supplemental enteral nutrition, or as a last resort, insulin requirements and TPN contents (1 unit regular insulin per 5 g carbohydrate or 15 g protein).
Ó 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Criteria for initiation of enteral nutrition have been the decision to begin enteral feedings is made ration- proposed which relate to symptom severity, nutritional ally. Several options for enteral access and feeding are consequences of disease and complications of gastrop- available (Table 5). There are no data favouring one aresis (Table 4).131 The recommendation to place approach over another and the choice of access is often enteral access may not initially be accepted by the determined by the expertise of the individual centre.
patient. Management goals such as desired weight, However, infusion of liquid meals into the stomach via reductions in hospitalizations and improved glycaemic a nasogastric tube or gastrostomy is not advocated control should be discussed with the patient, such that because of the likelihood of symptom exacerbation andthe risk of pulmonary aspiration resulting from the Table 4 Criteria for initiation of enteral nutrition supple- impairment of gastric emptying. Short-term nasojejun- al feeding is often used to help determine if the patientwill tolerate chronic small bowel feedings through a Severe weight loss, e.g. unintentional weight loss >5–10% permanent enteral access. Jejunostomies are most commonly placed by laparotomy or laparoscopy. Direct Repeated hospitalizations for refractory gastroparesis percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy placement is requiring i.v. hydration and/or i.v. medication performed in some centres. Jejunostomy extension Inability to meet weight goals set by doctor, dietician tubes can be passed through pre-existing gastrostomies Patient would beneﬁt from gastric decompression for delivery of enteral feedings in patients who are not Patient would beneﬁt from a way to absorb medications candidates for direct jejunostomy access or in whom everyday to gain therapeutic levels when vomiting such access is not desired for other reasons. In some individuals, a button device may improve quality of life Patient has maintained usual bodyweight, but experiences and personal appearance. Enteral feedings are usually initiated 24 h after jejunostomy tube placement. Stand- ard polymeric formulas with caloric density of 1.0– Overall poor quality of life due to gastroparesis symptoms 1.5 cal mL)1 (e.g. Jevity 1.5, Nutren 1.5 unﬂavoured,Promote, or Isosource HN) are begun at low infusion Used with permission from the University of Virginia HealthSystem Nutrition Support Traineeship Syllabus (87).
rates of 25–50 mL h)1 and advanced by 10–25 mL h)1 Table 5 Forms of enteral access for nutrition supplementation Large tube size often causes is comfortIs a poor choice for feeding due to Signiﬁcant gastro-oesophageal reﬂux can occur Vomiting may expel the tube into the stomach May be acceptable if there are no other options May be used for venting of secretions to decrease Allows the patient to vent gastric secretions to Migration of the J-tube extension into stomach New PEG-Js have distal feeding ports to reduce Stable access for reliable jejunal nutrient delivery Avoids gastric penetration which would interfere with proper electrode placement for gastricelectrical stimulation Two sites – one for venting and one for Journal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd every 4–12 h until the desired daily caloric intake is initial enthusiastic reports – and the average duration achieved. Liquid formulations of medications can be of response was 5 months.139 In an abstract report of 78 given though the jejunostomy followed by low volume patients, percentages of patients experiencing symp- water ﬂushes.131 Individuals should avoid oral intake tom reductions after pyloric injection of botulinum during the initial 48–72 h after starting enteral infu- toxin were similar in patients with diabetic (55%), sions to facilitate determination of patient tolerance of tube feedings. When ﬁrst administering enteral nutri- (44%).140 Prior response to botulinum injection predic- tion, jejunal feedings should be delivered continuously ted a favourable response to subsequent injection.
24 h a day. Over time, this can be converted to Higher doses of botulinum toxin (150–200 units) were nocturnal infusions to free up the daytime hours for more likely to produce reductions in nausea and optional oral intake and to participate in normal daily vomiting compared with doses £100 units.
activities. High calorie formulas (1.5–2.0 cal mL)1) can Results of these uncontrolled trials have served as reduce volumes and times of infusion; however, sup- the impetus for the conduct of placebo-controlled trials plemental hydration may be needed. In those with of pyloric injection of botulinum toxin in gastroparesis.
considerable weight loss, enteral feedings should be Preliminary results of one investigation reported an initiated more slowly to avoid refeeding problems such as respiratory failure and congestive heart failure.132 improvement.141 However, this preliminary report of Prevention of complications from jejunostomy tubes 12 patients was underpowered to detect an effect of the include regular ﬂushing after use and routine skin care.
drug. Until appropriate studies are performed, the Some centres advocate tube replacements every 3– authors feel it is appropriate to consider pyloric 6 months to avoid problems such as tube decomposi- injection of botulinum toxin when other accepted tion and skin infection whereas other institutions medication therapies have failed or produce unaccept- recommend intervention only when adverse issues able side-effects. To date, few adverse effects have been reported with botulinum toxin injections thus themajor limiting factors relate to issues of insurancecoverage and the inconvenience of undergoing endo- Some patients with documented gastroparesis exhibit The therapeutic endoscopist also may offer other prolonged periods of increased phasic and tonic motor treatment options to individuals with refractory gastr- activity of the pylorus.12 This phenomenon, termed oparesis. Endoscopic placement of a venting gastrosto- pylorospasm, has been postulated to contribute to the my may allow the patient with severe postprandial delay in gastric emptying by producing a functional fullness or discomfort to release gas and ﬂuid inter- gastric outlet obstruction.12 In theory, use of a therapy mittently to reduce symptoms.142,143 In theory, dila- to reduce pylorospasm might have beneﬁcial actions in tion of the pylorus may produce similar beneﬁts as gastroparesis. Botulinum toxin binds to presynaptic pyloric injection of botulinum toxin; however, no acetylcholine terminals and produces blockade at the studies have been performed to test this method.
level of the neuromuscular junction thereby preventingcholinergic transmission and promoting muscle relax- ation. Endoscopic injection of botulinum toxin into thepylorus has been shown to reduce fasting and post- Development of practical gastric electrical stimulation prandial phasic and tonic pyloric contractions in techniques for the treatment of gastroparesis have patients with gastroparesis.133,134 In several small been a focus of research over the past decade. Studies open-label series, acceleration of gastric emptying and using a gastric pacemaker that delivered high energy modest reductions in symptoms have been observed 1– depolarizing stimuli to the stomach just above the 3 months after pyloric injection of botulinum tox- physiological slow wave frequency (3.3 cpm) showed in.134–138 Doses have ranged from 80 to 200 units promise in promoting gastric emptying and reducing delivered in circumferential fashion at 4–5 sites into symptoms of gastroparesis.144 However, this system proved unwieldy because of the large external current More recent retrospective analyses of larger numbers source required to drive the stomach through pacing of patients have provided additional information on the electrodes that penetrated the abdominal wall and utility of pyloric botulinum toxin injection.139,140 In sewn to the gastric serosa. In 2000, the FDA-granted one study of 63 patients in clinical practice, the humanitarian device exemption approval for the response rate was 43% – lower than many of the Enterra gastric electrical stimulator (Medtronic, Inc.; Ó 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Shoreview, MN, USA) for patients with refractory stimulator has shown efﬁcacy in reducing symptoms diabetic or idiopathic gastroparesis. This system con- in postsurgical gastroparesis – an unapproved indica- sists of a pair of electrodes sutured to the muscular tion.151,152 The most common complication of this layer of the anterior wall of the stomach, which are form of therapy is infection of the subcutaneous connected to a pulse generator implanted in a subcu- stimulator pocket, which occurs in 5–10% of patients taneous pocket in the abdominal wall. The pulse and nearly always requires surgical removal of the generator delivers low energy 0.1 s trains of pulses at a device. Other complications include wire breakage, frequency of 12 cycles per minute. Within each pulse electrode dislodgement or penetration of the stomach, train, individual pulses oscillate at a frequency of 14 and intestinal obstruction. Patients should not undergo magnetic resonance imaging and should avoid certainmetal detecting security devices after stimulatorimplantation.
While the results of these investigations are encour- Two multicentre trials have been conducted to evalu- aging, the clinical beneﬁts of gastric electric stimula- ate the efﬁcacy of the gastric electrical stimulator in tion have not been unequivocally demonstrated or the patients with diabetic and idiopathic gastroparesis. In site of action. A larger, longer duration, sham-stimu- an open-label study, 35 of 38 patients (mostly with lation controlled, multicentre trial of gastric electrical idiopathic gastroparesis) experienced >80% reductions stimulation is ongoing in patients with gastroparesis.
in nausea and vomiting which persisted for the Optimal pulse parameters need to be deﬁned and duration of the observation period (3–15 months) asso- predictors of clinical improvement must be character- ciated with signiﬁcant weight gain.145 Although many ized. Endoscopic placement may offer a much more individuals were able to discontinue enteral or paren- attractive lead placement method. A recently reported teral nutrition, one quarter of patients needed to method of temporary gastric electrical stimulation via undergo additional surgeries including subtotal gas- endoscopically placed electrodes offers a potential trectomy for symptom control and device removal for means to preoperatively predict potential response to complications. The second multicentre investigation represents the only sham-stimulation controlled studyto date.146 In this trial, 33 gastroparesis patients (16 idiopathic, 17 diabetic) were randomized to shamvs active stimulation for 1 month each in double-blind, The mechanism(s) underlying the clinical beneﬁts of crossover fashion followed by an open-label stimula- the gastric electrical stimulator are not fully under- tion period to 12 months. During the blinded phase, stood. Most investigations observed only minimal vomiting frequencies were 14% lower when the device acceleration of gastric emptying.145,146,148,149 Those was ON compared with times when the device was studies reporting acceleration of emptying are com- deactivated – a difference reported to be statistically posed largely of patients with idiopathic gastroparesis, signiﬁcant. Furthermore, patients preferred the ON a condition which can show progressive spontaneous period over the OFF period by a threefold margin.
improvement. Furthermore, this device does not However, the beneﬁts of treatment were predomin- entrain slow waves or reverse underlying slow wave antly, if not exclusively, experienced by the diabetic dysrhythmias.154 Recent reports indicate that electrical group. During the open phase of the study, electrical stimulation can modulate gastric biomechanical prop- stimulation produced a 76% reduction in vomiting at erties, enhance postprandial proximal gastric accom- 12 months. Approximately 15% of patients required device explant or revision because of complications. In distension.155,156 An investigation employing cerebral other open-label, single centre studies, electrical sti- imaging methods suggests that gastric electrical sti- mulation has been reported to improve nutritional mulation has inhibitory actions on afferent pathways status, limit the need for prokinetic and antiemetic projecting to different regions in the brain.157 Others medications, reduce the need for supplemental nutri- have suggested that the beneﬁts of the device may tion, decrease health-related costs and improve HbA1c stem from action on vagal pathways.147,154 However, if values in diabetics.110,147–149 In an abstract with long- the ﬁndings from case series reporting responses in term patient follow-up, investigators have observed patients with postvagotomy gastroparesis are repro- 26% and 44% reductions in nausea and vomiting, duced, mediation by vagal pathways cannot represent respectively, persisting for up to 10 years after device the sole mechanism of action of gastric electrical implantation.150 Most recently, the gastric electrical Journal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Because of the restrictions imposed by its humanitar- ian device status, the Enterra gastric electrical stimu- lator cannot be implanted at any given institution until its use has been approved by the local IRB.
Although patients with refractory symptoms have embraced the availability of this device, this special status has been used by some third party insurance carriers to deny coverage. Candidates for implantation of the gastric electrical stimulator include patientswith chronic diabetic or idiopathic gastroparesis with relentless nausea and vomiting who are not responding to appropriate diet and medication therapy. There is a special need in diabetics being considered for renal and/or pancreas transplantation where it is important that the immunosuppressive agents will be absorbed.
Conversely, individuals without nausea and vomiting but with other manifestations of gastroparesis (full- ness, early satiety, anorexia, pain) have not been shown to predictably respond to gastric stimulation.
Patients being considered for enteral or parenteral nutritional support may be given particular considera- tion for this treatment option. However, one group has reported in an abstract that aggressive medical therapy with combination drug therapy (antiemetics and pro- kinetics in adequate doses) and pyloric injections of botulinum toxin produces adequate symptom responses that avoid the need for surgery in up to two-thirds of patients referred for consideration of gastric electrical stimulation.158 Contraindications may include generalized dysmotility syndromes also involving the small bowel including chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction and collagen vascular diseases such as scleroderma and prior gastric resections.
Although chronic narcotic analgesic use may reduce the symptomatic beneﬁts of gastric electrical stimula- tion, the need for opiates should be evaluated on an individual basis and does not necessarily represent an exclusion criterion.159 Insertion of a jejunostomy tube during implantation of the gastric electrical stimulator should be considered in patients who may have difﬁculty meeting their nutritional and hydration In selected instances, other surgical procedures may be considered for control of refractory symptoms in patients with gastroparesis.143 The range of surgical options includes drainage procedures such as pyloro- myotomy or pyloroplasty and partial or total gastric resections to bypass a non-emptying stomach and Ó 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd decrease symptoms. Most published studies are uncon- trolled and report disappointing responses to operative 1 Parkman HP, Hasler WL, Fisher RS. American Gast- resection.143 Of seven patients who underwent partial roenterological Association technical review on the (subtotal) gastrectomy with Roux-en-Y gastrojejunos- diagnosis and treatment of gastroparesis. Gastroenterol- tomy, six reported reduced vomiting.160 However, three individuals developed renal failure and two died 2 Soykan I, Sivri B, Sarosiek I, Kierran B, McCallum RW.
Demography, clinical characteristics, psychological pro- within 5 months of surgery. More impressive results ﬁles, treatment and long-term follow-up of patients with have been observed in some studies in which total gastroparesis. Dig Dis Sci 1998; 43: 2398–404.
(completion) gastric resection was performed for post- 3 Revicki DA, Rentz AM, Dubois D et al. Gastroparesis surgical gastroparesis.161–163 Results from these uncon- Cardinal Symptom Index (GCSI): development and trolled, retrospective case series observed symptom validation of a patient reported assessment of severityof gastroparesis symptoms. Qual Life Res 2004; 13: reductions in approximately two-thirds of patients after this drastic surgical option. However, a more 4 Farup CE, Williams GR, Leidy NK, Helbers L, Murray M, recent study of completion gastrectomy for severe Quigley EMM. Effect of domperidone on the health- postsurgical gastric stasis reported successful out- related quality of life of patients with symptoms of dia- comes in only 43% of patients.164 In diabetic patients, betic gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 1998; 21: 1699–706.
5 Hoogerwerf WA, Pasricha PJ, Kalloo AN, Schuster MM.
pancreatic transplantation has been shown to halt Pain: the overlooked symptom in gastroparesis. Am J progression or even partly reverse peripheral polyneur- opathy.165 However, no consistent beneﬁts of pancreas 6 Talley NJ, Vakil NB, Moayyedi P. American Gast- transplantation on symptoms or gastric emptying have roenterological Association technical review on the been reported in patients with diabetic gastro- evaluation of dyspepsia. Gastroenterology 2005; 129:1756–80.
7 Horowitz M, Harding PE, Maddox AF et al. Gastric and oesophageal emptying in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1986; 1: 97–113.
8 Jones KL, Russo A, Stevens JE, Wishart JM, Berry MK, The treatment of gastroparesis includes dietary mod- Horowitz M. Predictors of delayed gastric emptying indiabetes. Diabetes Care 2001; iﬁcations, prokinetic and antiemetic medications, 9 Stanghellini V, Tosetti C, Paternico A et al. Risk indi- measures to control pain and address psychological cators of delayed gastric emptying of solids in patients issues, and endoscopic or surgical options in selected with functional dyspepsia. Gastroenterology 1996; 110: instances. Table 6 lists the consensus opinions of the authors of this document regarding the organized 10 Sarnelli G, Caenepeel P, Geypens B, Janssens J, Tack J.
Symptoms associated with impaired gastric emptying of approach to treating this challenging condition. The solids and liquids in functional dyspepsia. Am J Gast- different therapeutic modalities may be offered alone or in different combinations as dictated by the needs of 11 Delgado-Aros S, Camilleri M, Cremonini F, Ferber I, the individual patient. Goals of therapy include relief Stephens D, Burton DD. Contributions of gastric vol- of symptoms, normalization of nutrition and hydration umes and gastric emptying to meals size and postmealsymptoms in functional dyspepsia. Gastroenterology status, improvement of glycaemic control in diabetics, and improvement of gastric emptying when appropri- 12 Mearin F, Camilleri M, Malagelada JR. Pyloric dysfunc- ate. Effective management of the patient with gastrop- tion in diabetics with recurrent nausea and vomiting.
aresis may mandate involvement of a team of Gastroenterology 1986; 90: 1919–25.
specialists including the primary doctor, gastroenter- 13 Camilleri M, Brown ML, Malagelada JR. Relationship between impaired gastric emptying and abnormal ologist, endocrinologist, dietician, psychologist, inter- gastrointestinal motility. Gastroenterology 1986; 91: 14 Karamanolis G, Arts J, Caenepeel P, Verbeke K, Janssens J, Tack J. Determinants of symptom pattern in idiopathic gastroparesis: gastric emptying or proximal stomachdysfunction. Gastroenterology 2005; 128: A547 (abstract).
The authors are appreciative of Jeanne Keith-Ferris of 15 Samsom M, Salet GAM, Roelofs JMM, Akkermans LM, the patient support group Gastroparesis and Dysmotil- Vanberge-Henegouwen GP, Smout AJ. Compliance of the ity Association (GPDA) who helped organize the proximal stomach and dyspeptic symptoms in patients conferences held to discuss the topics contained in with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Dig Dis Sci 1995; 40: 2037– this report of the American Motility Society Workshop 16 Bredenoord AJ, Chial HJ, Camilleri M, Mullan BP, on Consensus Guidelines for the Treatment of Gastro- Murray JA. Gastric accommodation and emptying in Journal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd evaluation of patients with upper gastrointestinal symp- 33 Basque J-R, Noritake M, Mizogami H, Katsura Y. Efﬁcacy toms. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2003; 1: 264–72.
of itopride hydrochloride on gastric emptying in patients 17 Revicki DA, Rentz AM, Dubois D et al. Development with diabetic gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 2005; 128: and validation of a patient-assessed gastroparesis symp- toms severity measure: the Gastroparesis Cardinal 34 Farrugia G, Macielaq M, Peeters TL, Sarr MG, Galdes A, Symptom Index. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2003; 18: 141– Szurszewski JH. Motilin and OHM-11526 activate a cal- cium current in human and canine jejunal circular 18 Parrish CR, Yoshida C. Nutrition intervention for the smooth muscle. Am J Physiol 1997; 36: G404–12.
patient with gastroparesis: an update. Pract Gastroenterol 35 Weber FH, Richard RE, McCallum RW. Erythromycin: a motilin agonist and gastrointestinal prokinetic agent.
19 Emerson AP. Foods high in ﬁber and phytobezoar for- Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 485–90.
mation. J Am Diet Assoc 1987; 87: 1675–7.
36 Moshiree B, Gupta V, Verne GN, Toskes PP. Azithro- 20 Sturm A, Holtmann G, Goebell H, Gerken G. Prokinetics mycin: a new therapy for gastroparesis. Gastroenterology in patients with gastroparesis: a systematic analysis.
37 Kendall BJ, Chakravarti A, Kendall E, Soykan L, McCal- 21 McCallum TW, Ricci DA, Rakatansky H et al. A multi- lum RW. The effect of intravenous erythromycin on solid center placebo-controlled clinical trial of oral meto- meal gastric emptying in patients with chronic sympto- clopramide in diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 1983; matic post-vagotomy antrectomy gastroparesis. Aliment 22 Ricci D, Saltzman M, Meyer C, Callachan C, McCallum 38 Parkman HP, Pagano AP, Vozzelli M, Ryan JP. The gas- RW. Effect of metoclopramide in diabetic gastroparesis.
trokinetic effects of erythromycin: myogenic and neuro- J Clin Gastroenterol 1985; 7: 25–32.
genic mechanisms of action in the rabbit stomach. Am J 23 Snape WJ, Battle WM, Schwartz SS, Braunstein SN, Goldstein HA, Alavi A. Metoclopramide to treat gastr- 39 Parkman HP, Pagano AP, Ryan JP. Erythromycin inhibits oparesis due to diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 1982; pyloric muscle by releasing nitric oxide and VIP through neuronal motilin receptors. Gastroenterology 1996; 111: 24 Chen JDZ, Pan J, McCallum RW. Clinical signiﬁcance of gastric myoelectrical dysrhythmias. Dig Dis 1995; 13: 40 Coulie B, Tack J, Peeters T, Janssens J. Involvement of two different pathways in the motor effects of erythro- 25 McCallum RW, Valenzuela G, Polepalle S. Subcutaneous mycin on the gastric antrum in humans. Gut 1998; 43: metoclopramide in the treatment of symptomatic gastr- oparesis: clinical efﬁcacy and pharmacokinetics. J Phar- 41 Maganti K, Onyemere K, Jones MP. Oral erythromycin and symptomatic relief of gastroparesis: a systematic 26 Ganzini L, Casey DE, Hoffman WF, McCall AL. The review. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 259–63.
prevalence of metoclopramide-induced tardive dyskinesia 42 Richards RD, Davenport K, McCallum RW. The treat- and acute extrapyramidal movement disorders. Arch ment of idiopathic and diabetic gastroparesis with acute intravenous and chronic oral erythromycin. Am J Gast- 27 Shaffer D, Butterﬁeld M, Pamer C, Mackey AC. Tardive dyskinesia risks and metoclopramide use before and after 43 Ray WA, Murray KT, Meredith S, Narasimhulu SS, Hall U.S. market withdrawal of cisapride. J Am Pharm Assoc K, Stein CM. Oral erythromycin and the risk of sudden death from cardiac causes. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1089– 28 Patterson D, Abell T, Rothstein R, Koch K, Barnett J. A double-blind multicenter comparison of domperidone 44 Talley NJ, Verlinden M, Snape W et al. Failure of a and metoclopramide in the treatment of diabetic patients motilin receptor agonist (ABT-229) to relieve the symp- with symptoms of gastroparesis. Am J Gastroenterol toms of functional dyspepsia in patients with and with- out delayed gastric emptying. A randomized double-blind 29 Silvers D, Kipnes M, Broadstone V et al. Domperidone in placebo controlled trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2000; the management of symptoms of diabetic gastroparesis; efﬁcacy, tolerability, and quality-of-life outcomes in a 45 Talley NJ, Verlinden M, Geenen DJ et al. Effects of a multicenter controlled trial. Clin Ther 1998; 20: 438–53.
motilin receptor agonist (ABT-229) on upper gastrointes- 30 Koch KL, Stern RM, Stewart WR, Vasey MW. Gastric tinal symptoms in type 1 diabetes mellitus: a random- emptying and gastric myoelectrical activity in patients ized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial. Gut 2001; 49: with diabetic gastroparesis: effect of long-term domperi- done treatment. Am J Gastroenterol 1989; 84: 1069–75.
46 McCallum RW, Rogel R, Fang JC, Altman RS, Faichney 31 Soykan I, Lin Z, Jones S, Chen J, McCallum RW. Effect of JD, Goldstein BJ. Mitemacil fumarate (GM-611) provided chronic oral domperidone therapy on gastrointestinal symptomatic relief of diabetic gastroparesis, especially in symptoms and gastric emptying in patients with Par- type I diabetics: results of a 12-week, multi-center, dou- kinson’s disease. Mov Disord 1997; 12: 952–7.
ble-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized phase 2b study.
32 Sawant P, Das HS, Desai N, Kalokhe S, Patil S. Com- Gastroenterology 2005; 128: A467 (abstract).
parative evaluation of the efﬁcacy and tolerability of i- 47 Murray CD, Martin NM, Patterson M et al. Ghrelin topride hydrochloride and domperidone in patients with enhances gastric emptying in diabetic gastroparesis: a non-ulcer dyspepsia. J Assoc Physicians India 2004; 52: double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. Gut Ó 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 48 Tack J, Depoortere I, Bisschops R, Verbeke K, Janssens J, 65 McCallum R, Zarling E, Goetsch CA et al. Nizatidine Peeters T. Inﬂuence of ghrelin on gastric emptying and controlled release has gastric prokinetic effects in pa- tients with gastroesophageal reﬂux disease (GERD).
Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005; 22: 847–53.
Gastroenterology 2004; 126(Suppl. 2): A-335.
49 Fraser RJ, Horowitz M, Maddox AF, Dent J. Postprandial 66 Rosa-e-Silva L, Troncon LE, Oliveira RB, Iazigi N, Gallo antropyloroduodenal motility and gastric emptying in L Jr, Foss MC. Treatment of diabetic gastroparesis with gastroparesis – effects of cisapride. Gut 1994; 35: 172–8.
oral clonidine. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1995; 9: 179– 50 Braden B, Enghofer M, Schaub M, Usadel KH, Caspary WJ, Lembcke B. Long-term cisapride treatment improves 67 Huilgol V, Evans J, Hellman RS, Soergel KH. Acute effect diabetic gastroparesis but not glycaemic control. Aliment of clonidine on gastric emptying in patients with diabetic gastropathy and controls. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002; 51 Abell TL, Camilleri M, DiMagno EP, Hench VS, Zins- meister AR, Malagelada JR. Long-term efﬁcacy of oral 68 Lossos IS, Mevorach D, Oren R. Thiethylperazine treat- cisapride in symptomatic upper gut dysmotility. Dig Dis ment of gastroparesis diabeticorum. Ann Pharmacother 52 Jones MP. Access options for withdrawn motility-modi- 69 Kranke P, Morin AM, Roewer N et al. The efﬁcacy and fying agents. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 2184–8.
safety of transdermal scopolamine for the prevention of 53 Prather CM, Camilleri M, Zinsmeister AR, McKinzie S, postoperative nausea and vomiting: a quantitative sys- Thomforde G. Tegaserod accelerates orocecal transit in tematic review. Anesth Analg 2002; 95: 133–43.
patients with constipation-predominant irritable bowel 70 Hurwitz A, Robinson RG, Herrin WF, Christie J. Oral syndrome. Gastroenterology 2000; 118: 463–8.
anticholinergics and gastric emptying. Clin Pharmacol 54 Degen L, Matzinger D, Merz M et al. Tegaserod, a 5-HT4 receptor partial agonist, accelerates gastric emptying and 71 Jaup BH, Dotevall G. The effect of pirenzipine and gastrointestinal transit in healthy male subjects. Aliment L-hyoscyamine on gastric emptying and salivary secre- tion in healthy volunteers. Scand J Gastroenterol 1981; 55 Tougas G, Chen Y, Luo D, Salter J, D’Elia T, Earnest DL.
Tegaserod improves gastric emptying in patients with 72 Kranke P, Morin AM, Roewer N, Eberhart LH. Dimen- gastroparesis and dyspeptic symptoms. Gastroenterology hydrinate for prophylaxis of postoperative nausea and vomiting: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled tri- als. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2002; 46: 238–44.
Appel-Dingemanse S, Bliesath H, Lefkowitz M. Tegas- 73 Kothari SN, Boyd WC, Bottcher ML, Lambert PJ. Anti- erod, a 5-hydroxytryptamine type 4 receptor partial emetic efﬁcacy of prophylactic dimenhydrinate vs.
agonist, is devoid of electrocardiographic effects. Am J ondansetron: a randomized, prospective trial in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Surg Endosc 57 Kanaizumi T, Nakano H, Matsui Y et al. Prokinetic effect of AS-4370 on gastric emptying in healthy adults. Eur J 74 Stewart JJ, Wood MJ, Wood CD, Mims ME. Effects of motion sickness and antimotion sickness drugs on gas- 58 Asakawa H, Hayashi I, Fukui T, Tokunaga K. Effect of tric function. J Clin Pharmacol 1994; 34: 635–43.
mosapride on glycemic control and gastric emptying in 75 El-Gammal A, Rashed HM, Taylor J, Werkman R, Abell type 2 diabetes mellitus patients with gastropathy. Dia- TL. Long term ondansetron therapy is beneﬁcial in betes Res Clin Pract 2003; 61: 175–82.
patients with chronic nausea and vomiting. Gastroen- 59 Potet F, Bouyssou T, Escande D, Baro I. Gastrointestinal terology 2000; 118: A1170 (abstract).
prokinetic drugs have different afﬁnity for the human 76 Netzer P, Gaia C, Lourens ST et al. Does intravenous cardiac human ether-a-gogo K(+) channel. J Pharmacol ondansetron affect gastric emptying of a solid meal, gastric electrical activity or blood hormone levels in 60 Malagelada JR, Rees WD, Mazzotta LJ, Go VL. Gastric healthy volunteers? Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002; 16: motor abnormalities in diabetic and postvagotomy gastroparesis: effect of metoclopramide and bethanechol.
77 Nielsen OH, Hvid-Jacobsen K, Lund P, Langoholz E.
Gastroenterology 1980; 78: 286–93.
Gastric emptying and subjective symptoms of nausea: 61 McCallum RW, Fink SM, Lerner E, Berkowitz DM.
lack of effect of a 5-hydroxytryptamine-3 antagonist on- Effects of metoclopramide and bethanechol on delayed dansetron on gastric emptying in patients with gastric gastric emptying present in gastroesophageal reﬂux pa- stasis syndrome. Digestion 1990; 46: 89–96.
tients. Gastroenterology 1983; 84: 1573–7.
78 Stacher G, Bergmann H, Schneider C et al. Effects of the 62 Parkman HP, Trate DM, Knight LC, Brown KL, Maurer 5-HT3 receptor antagonist ICS 205–930 on fat-delayed AH, Fisher RS. Cholinergic effects on human gastric gastric emptying and antral motor activity. Br J Clin 63 Kishibayashi N, Karasawa A. Effects of KW-5092 on an- 79 McCallum RW, Soykan I, Sridhar KR et al. Delta-9- troduodenal coordination and gastric emptying in guinea tetrahydrocannabinol delays the gastric emptying of solid pigs. J Pharm Pharmacol 1998; 50: 1045–50.
food in humans: a double-blind, randomized study. Ali- 64 Ueki S, Seiki M, Yoneta T et al. Gastroprokinetic activity ment Pharmacol Ther 1999; 13: 77–80.
of nizatidine, a new H2-receptor antagonist, and its 80 Adelhoj B, Petring OU, Brynnum J et al. Effect of diaze- possible mechanism of action in dogs and rats. J Phar- pam on drug absorption and gastric emptying in man.
Journal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 81 Dando TM, Perry CM. Aprepitant: a review of its use in 97 Duby JJ, Campbell RK, Setter SM, White JR, Rasmussen the prevention of chemotherapy-induced nausea and KA. Diabetic neuropathy: an intensive review. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2004; 61: 160–73.
82 Diemunsch P, Schoefﬂer P, Bryssine B et al. Antiemetic 98 Carroll DG, Kline KM, Malnar KF. Role of topiramate for activity of the NK1 receptor antagonist GR205171 in the the treatment of painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy.
treatment of established postoperative nausea and vom- Pharmacotherapy 2004; 24: 1186–93.
iting after major gynaecological surgery. Br J Anaesth 99 Malcom A, Camilleri M, Kost L et al. Towards identify- ing optimal doses for alpha-2 adrenergic modulation of 83 Prakash C, Lustman PJ, Freedland KE, Clouse RE. Tri- colonic and rectal motor and sensory function. Aliment cyclic antidepressants for functional nausea and vomit- ing: clinical outcome in 37 patients. Dig Dis Sci 1998; 43: 100 Maurer AH, Krevsky B, Knight LC, Brown K. Opioid and opioid-like drug effects on whole-gut transit measured by 84 Sawhney MS, Prakash C, Lustman PJ, Clouse RE. Tricy- scintigraphy. J Nucl Med 1996; 37: 818–22.
clic antidepressants for persistent or recurrent vomiting 101 Mercadante S, Casuccio A, Fulfaro F et al. Switching in diabetic patients. Gastroenterology 2001; 120: A243 from morphine to methadone to improve analgesia and tolerability in cancer patients: a prospective study. J Clin 85 Gupta YK, Sharma M. Reversal of pyrogallol-induced delay in gastric emptying in rats by ginger (Zingiber 102 Tawﬁk MO, Bryuzgin V, Kourteva G, FEN-INT-20 Study ofﬁcinale). Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 2001; 23: Group. Use of transdermal fentanyl without prior opioid stabilization in patients with cancer pain. Curr Med Res 86 Gonlachanvit S, Chen YH, Hasler WL et al. Ginger 103 Liu M, Wittbrodt E. Low-dose oral naloxone reverses opioid-induced constipation and analgesia. J Pain Symp- prostaglandins. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003; 307: 1098– 104 Foss JF. A review of the potential role of methylnaltrex- 87 Roscoe JA, Morrow GR, Hickok JT et al. The efﬁcacy of one in opioid bowel dysfunction. Am J Surg 2001; 182: acupressure and acustimulation wrist bands for the relief of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. J Pain 105 Gonenne J, Camilleri M, Ferber I et al. Effect of alvimo- pan and codeine on gastrointestinal transit: a randomized 88 Wang L. Clinical observation on acupuncture treatment controlled study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005; 3: in 35 cases of diabetic gastroparesis. J Tradit Chin Med 106 Talley NJ, Weaver AL, Zinmeister AR. Impact of func- 89 Rathmann W, Enck P, Frieling T, Gries FA. Visceral tional dyspepsia on quality of life. Dig Dis Sci 1995; 40: afferent neuropathy in diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes 107 Cutts TF, Abell TL, Karas JG, Kuns J. Symptom 90 Hasler WL, Soudah HC, Dulai G, Owyang C. Mediation improvement from prokinetic therapy corresponds to of hyperglycemia-evoked gastric slow-wave dysrhythmi- improved quality of life in patients with severe dyspepsia.
as by endogenous prostaglandins. Gastroenterology 1995; 108 Clouse RE, Lustman PJ. Gastrointestinal symptoms in 91 Pimentel M, Sam C, Lin HC. Indomethacin improves diabetic patients: lack of association with neuropathy.
symptoms and electrogastrographic ﬁndings in patients Am J Gastroenterol 1989; 84: 868–72.
with gastric dysrhythmias. Neurogastroenterol Motil 109 Drossman DA, Talley NJ, Leserman J, Olden KW, Barri- ero MA. Sexual and physical abuse in gastrointestinal 92 Simonian HP, Parkman HP. Effect of prostaglandin illness. Review and recommendations. Ann Intern Med inhibition with ketorolac on gastric activity and dyspep- tic symptoms in patients with dyspeptic symptoms. Am J 110 Cutts TF, Luo J, Starkebaum W, Rashid H, Abell TL.
Gastroenterol 2003; 98(Suppl.): S58.
Gastric electrical stimulation is superior to standard 93 Gorelick AB, Koshy SS, Hooper FG et al. Differential ef- pharmacologic therapy in improving GI symptoms, fects of amitriptyline on perception of somatic and vis- healthcare resources, and long-term healthcare beneﬁts.
ceral stimulation in healthy humans. Am J Physiol 1998; Neurogastroenterol Motil 2005; 17: 35–43.
111 Wagner EH, Glasgow RE, Davis C et al. Quality 94 Goldstein DJ, Lu Y, Detke MJ, Lee TC, Iyengar S. Dul- improvement in chronic illness care: a collaborative oxetine vs. placebo in patients with painful diabetic approach. J Jt Comm Health Care Qual 2001; 27: 63–80.
neuropathy. Pain 2005; 116: 109–18.
112 Rashed H, Cutts T, Luo J et al. Predictors of response to a 95 Chial HJ, Camilleri M, Burton D, Thomforde G, Olden behavioral treatment in patients with chronic gastric KW, Stephens D. Selective effects of serotonergic psych- motility disorders. Dig Dis Sci 2002; 47: 1020–6.
oactive agents on gastrointestinal functions in health.
113 Horowitz M, Edelbroek M, Fraser R, Maddox A, Wishart Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2003; 284: J. Disordered gastric motor function in diabetes mellitus.
Recent insights into prevalence, pathophysiology, clin- 96 Gorard DA, Libby GW, Farthing MJ. 5-Hydroxytrypta- ical relevance, and treatment. Scand J Gastroenterol mine and human small intestinal motility: effect of inhibiting 5-hydroxytryptamine reuptake. Gut 1994; 35: 114 Bytzer P, Talley NJ, Leemon M, Young LJ, Jones MP, Horowitz M. Prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms Ó 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd associated with diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med 2001; 130 Shopbell JM, Hopkins B, Shronts EP. Nutrition screening and assessment. In: Gottschlich M, ed. The Science and 115 Maleki D, Locke GR III, Camilleri M et al. Gastrointes- Practice of Nutrition Support: A Case-based Core Cur- tinal tract symptoms among persons with diabetes riculum. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 2001: 119–130.
mellitus in the community. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 131 Parrish CR, Krenitsky J, McCray S. University of Virginia Health System Nutrition Support Traineeship Syllabus.
116 Ziegler D, Schadewaldt P, Pour Mirza A et al. [13C]oct- 2003. Available at: http://www.healthsystem.virginia.
anoic acid breath test for non-invasive assessment of edu/internet/dietitian/dh/traineeship.cfm (accessed 25 gastric emptying in diabetic patients: validation and relationship to gastric symptoms and cardiovascular 132 McCray S, Walker S, Parrish CR. Much ado about autonomic function. Diabetologia 1996; 39: 823–30.
refeeding. Pract Gastroenterol 2005; 29: 26–8.
117 Talley NJ. Diabetic gastropathy and prokinetics. Am J 133 Gupta P, Rao SS. Attenuation of isolated pyloric pressure waves in gastroparesis in response to botulinum toxin 118 Fraser RJ, Horowitz M, Maddox AF, Harding PE, Chat- injection: a case report. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 56: terton BE, Dent J. Hyperglycaemia slows gastric empty- ing in type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus.
134 Lacy BE, Crowell MD, Schettler-Duncan A, Mathis C, Pasricha PJ. The treatment of diabetic gastroparesis with 119 Oster-Jorgensen E, Pedersen SA, Larsen ML. The inﬂu- botulinum toxin injection into the pylorus. Diabetes ence of induced hyperglycaemia on gastric emptying rate in healthy humans. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1990; 50: 135 Lacy BE, Zayat EN, Crowell MD, Schuster MM. Botuli- num toxin for the treatment of gastroparesis: a prelim- 120 Jebbink RJ, Samsom M, Bruijs PP et al. Hyperglycemia inary report. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 1548–52.
induces abnormalities of gastric myoelectrical activity in 136 Miller LS, Szych GA, Kantor SB et al. Treatment of patients with type I diabetes mellitus. Gastroenterology idiopathic gastroparesis with injection of botulinum toxin into the pyloric sphincter muscle. Am J Gastroen- 121 Frank JW, Saslow SB, Camilleri M, Thomforde GM, Dinneen S, Rizza RA. Mechanism of accelerated gastric 137 Ezzeddine D, Jit R, Katz N, Gopalswamy N, Bhutani MS.
emptying of liquids and hyperglycemia in patients with Pyloric injection of botulinum toxin for treatment of type II diabetes mellitus. Gastroenterology 1995; 109: diabetic gastroparesis. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 55: 122 Barnett JL, Owyang C. Serum glucose concentration as a 138 Arts J, Van Gool S, Caenepeel P, Janssens J, Tack J. Effect modulator of interdigestive gastric motility. Gastroen- of intrapyloric injection of botulinum toxin on gastric emptying and meal-related symptoms in gastroparesis.
123 Hasler WL, Soudah HC, Kulai G, Owyang C. Mediation Gastroenterology 2003; 124: A53 (abstract).
of hyperglycemia-evoked gastric slow-wave dysrhythmi- 139 Bromer MQ, Friedenberg F, Miller LS, Fisher RS, Swartz as by endogenous prostaglandins. Gastroenterology 1995; K, Parkman HP. Endoscopic pyloric injection of botuli- num toxin A for treatment of refractory gastroparesis.
124 Jones KL, Horowitz M, Berry M, Wishart JM, Guha S.
Gastrointest Endosc 2005; 61: 833–9.
Blood glucose concentration inﬂuences postprandial 140 Coleski R, Hasler W. Clinical and gastric functional fullness in IDDM. Diabetes Care 1997; 20: 1141–6.
predictors of symptom response to pyloric injection of 125 Petrakis IE, Chalkiadakis G, Vrachassotakis N, Sciacca V, botulinum toxin in patients with gastroparesis. Neuro- Vassilakis SJ, Xynos E. Induced-hyperglycemia attenuates gastroenterol Motil 2005; 17: 628 (abstract).
erythromycin-induced acceleration of hypertonic liquid- 141 Arts J, Caenepeel P, Degreef T et al. Randomized double- phase gastric emptying in type I diabetic patients. Dig Dis blind cross-over study evaluation the effect of intrapy- loric injection of botulinum toxin on gastric emptying 126 Jones KL, Berry M, Kong MF, Kwiatek MA, Samsom M, and symptoms in patients with gastroparesis. Gastroen- Horowitz M. Hyperglycemia attenuates the gastrokinetic effect of erythromycin and affects the perception of 142 Kim CH, Nelson DK. Venting percutaneous gastrostomy postprandial hunger in normal subjects. Diabetes Care in the treatment of refractory idiopathic gastroparesis.
Gastrointest Endosc 1998; 47: 67–70.
127 Gentilcore D, O’Donovan D, Jones KL, Horowitz M.
143 Jones MP, Maganti K. A systematic review of surgical Nutrition therapy for diabetic gastroparesis. Curr Diab therapy for gastroparesis. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 128 Lehmann R, Honegger RA, Feinle C, Freid M, Spinas GA, 144 McCallum RW, Chen JDZ, Lin Z, Schirmer BD, Williams Schwizer W. Glucose control is not improved by accel- RD, Ross RA. Gastric pacing improves emptying and erating gastric emptying in patients with type 1 diabetes symptoms in patients with gastroparesis. Gastroenterol- and gastroparesis, a pilot study with cisapride as a model drug. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2003; 111: 255–61.
145 Abell T, Custem EV, Abrahamsson H. Gastric electrical 129 Riddle MC, Rosenstock J, Gerich J, Insulin Glargine 4002 stimulation in intractable symptomatic gastroparesis.
Study Investigators. The treat-to-target trial: randomized addition of glargine or human NPH insulin to oral ther- 146 Abell T, McCallum R, Hocking M et al. Gastric electrical apy of type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 2003; 26: stimulation for medically refractory gastroparesis. Gas- Journal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 147 Abell T, Lou J, Tabaa M, Batista O, Malinowski S, Al- 157 McCallum RW, Dusing R, McMillin C et al. Fluoro-de- Juburi A. Gastric electrical stimulation for gastroparesis oxyglucose (FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) in improves nutritional parameters at short, intermediate, gastroparetic patients before and during gastric electrical and long-term follow up. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2003; stimulation (GES). Gastroenterolgy 2005; 128: A622 (ab- 148 Lin Z, Forster J, Sarosiek I, McCallum RW. Treatment of 158 Hasler W. Nonoperative management of patients with gastroparesis by high-frequency gastric electrical stimu- gastroparesis referred for gastric electrical stimulator lation. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 1071–6.
implantation. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2005; 17: 480 149 Lin Z, McElhinney C, Sarosiek I, Forster J, McCallum R.
Chronic gastric electrical stimulation for gastroparesis 159 Skole KS, Panganamamula KV, Bromer MQ, Meilahn JE, reduces the use of prokinetic and/or antiemetic medica- Fisher RS, Parkman HP. Efﬁcacy of gastric electric sti- tions and the need for hospitalizations. Dig Dis Sci 2005; mulation for gastroparesis refractory to medical therapy.
Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: S48 (abstract).
150 Abell T, Al-Juburi A, Bashed H, Mirocha A. 13 years, 214 160 Watkins PJ, Buxton-Thomas MS, Howard ER. Long-term patients and over 5000 patient months: a long term report outcome after gastrectomy for intractable diabetic gastr- on gastric electric stimulation. Gastroenterology 2005; oparesis. Diabet Med 2003; 20: 58–63.
161 Karlstrom L, Kelly KA. Roux-Y gastrectomy for chronic 151 Oubre B, Luo J, Al-Juburi A, Voeller G, Familoni B, Abell gastric atony. Am J Surg 1989; 157: 44–9.
TL. Pilot study on gastric electric stimulation on surgery- 162 McCallum RW, Polepalle SC, Schirmer B. Completion associated gastroparesis: long-term outcome. South Med J gastrectomy for refractory gastroparesis following surgery for peptic ulcer disease. Dig Dis Sci 1991; 36: 1556–61.
152 McCallum R, Lin Z, Wetzel P, Sarosiek I, Forster J.
163 Eckhauser RE, Conrad M, Knol JA, Mulholland MW, Clinical response to gastric electrical stimulation in Colletti LM. Safety and long-term durability of comple- patients with postsurgical gastroparesis. Clin Gastro- tion gastrectomy in 81 patients with postsurgical gastr- oparesis syndrome. Am Surg 1998; 64: 711–7.
153 Ayinala S, Batista O, Goyal A et al. Temporary gastric 164 Forstner-Barthell AW, Murr MM, Nitecki S et al. Near- electrical stimulation with orally or PEG-placed elec- total completion gastrectomy for severe postvagotomy trodes in patients with drug refractory gastroparesis.
gastric stasis. J Gastrointest Surg 1999; 3: 15–21.
Gastrointest Endosc 2005; 61: 455–61.
165 Kennedy WR, Navarro X, Goetz FC, Sutherland DE, 154 Lin Z, Cocjin J, Sarosiek I, Roeser K, McCallum RW.
Najarian JS. Effects of pancreatic transplantation on dia- Inﬂuence of high-frequency electrical stimulation on betic neuropathy. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1031–7.
gastric electrical activity, autonomic function and 166 Murat A, Pouliquen B, Cantarovich D et al. Gastric symptoms in gastroparetic patients. Neurogastroenterol emptying improvement after simultaneous segmental pancreas and kidney transplantation. Transplant Proc 155 Tack J, Coulie B, Van Custem E et al. The inﬂuence of gastric electrical stimulation on proximal gastric motor 167 Hathaway DK, Abell T, Cardoso S, Hartwig MS, el Geb- and sensory function in severe idiopathic gastroparesis.
ely S, Gaber AO. Improvement in autonomic and gastric Gastroenterology 1999; 116: G4733 (abstract).
function following pancreas-kidney versus kidney-alone 156 Cocjin J, Lin Z, Scoggan R, Sarosiek I, McCallum RW.
transplantation and the correlation with quality of life.
Effects of high-frequency low-energy gastric electrical stimulation (Enterra device) on gastric distention andtone in gastroparetic patients. Gastroenterology 2005;128: A136 (abstract).
Ó 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation Ó 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Source: http://www.motilitysociety.org/clinician/manuscripts/trtment_of_gastroparesis.pdf

hotsites.editorasaraiva.com.br

A obra O mulato não só inaugura o Naturalismo no Brasil, como é uma das principais expressões dessa corrente na literatura brasileira. Sua marca é a análise da sociedade e dos tipos huma-nos a partir de uma visão orgânica, pessimista, do próprio com-portamento das pessoas reduzido a seus instintos mais básicos. Neste caso, trata também da questão racial, da discriminação e da hip

Graph-advertiser-ranking.eps

Auctions in Do-Not-Track Compliant Internet Advertising ABSTRACT easy to link tracking information with PII [16]. ConcernOnline tracking of users in support of behavioral advertis-over tracking continues to grow, and has led for instance toing is widespread. Several researchers have proposed non-the Do-Not-Track initiative launched by the Federal Tracetracking online advertising syste